Transfer of Liquid Hydrogen

Effect of LH2 Injection Method on Receiving Tank Pressure and Temperatures [1]

Distribution costs are driven by the delivery modes chosen. For scenarios where LH2 is produced onsite and transferred to a nearby or onsite storage or fueling facility, vacuum-jacketed transfer piping, valves, fittings, pumps, and other necessary equipment to support draining and filling of storage tanks are required.

For offsite ground transport, a fleet of trucks and LH2 trailers are needed to meet delivery frequency. Interface systems for loading or offloading are also required at all distribution sources and delivery locations. Rail service may be an alternative ground transport option for some locations subject to similar requirements for mobile storage, delivery schedules, and interface systems. Shipping by barge or tanker ship is an option where port infrastructure is in place to support loading and offloading.

The currently dominant LH2 distribution paradigm involves liquefaction plants owned and operated by a few incumbent companies (e.g., Air Liquide, Linde, and Air Products). LH2 produced at these facilities is primarily distributed to large, existing customers in over-the-road trailers. Delivery by barge and train is less common. In some cases, the customers’ LH2 receiving and storage system is leased from the provider.

This distribution approach is growing in popularity as more customers ramp up their LH2 usage. Additional distribution scenarios and providers are also coming online to meet various LH2 customer requirements for new applications, locations, quantities, and delivery frequencies. Smaller and more modular liquefaction systems have become commercially available to provide capabilities as needed. Small scale liquefaction is particularly in demand for mobility applications that are under development. As these applications scale up in the market, reliable but flexible LH2 distribution will be critical to ensure commercialization success.

For very large-scale, intercountry distribution, new import–export trade deals are being implemented in some global markets. Regions with an abundance of renewable energy and feedstock resources can produce, liquefy, and export LH2 to regions with high demand that have more constrained or costly production resources.

Conversely, island nations and other remote or isolated regions can combine the entire production, liquefaction, delivery, and end use in one location. This unique characteristic of hydrogen relative to fossil fuels eliminates the need for long-distance distribution altogether. Other hybrid approaches are also being developed, such as distribution of gaseous hydrogen via pipelines to be liquefied onsite at the point-of-use. 

Thermal management of LH2 and mitigation of boil-off throughout the delivery pathways is critical to minimizing hydrogen loss and associated costs. Identifying the appropriate options to mitigate boil-off losses requires systems engineering to identify the best trades for a particular use case.

References

[1] Image source: Liquid Hydrogen Systems Course, 2025.

[2] Text source: Decarbonizing Mobility with Liquid Hydrogen, SAE Research Report, 2024.

Author Bio

Matt Moran is the Managing Member at Moran Innovation LLC, and previous Managing Partner at Isotherm Energy. He's been developing power and propulsion systems for more than 40 years; and first-of-a-kind gas, slush, and liquid hydrogen systems since the mid-1980s. Matt was also the Sector Manager for Energy & Materials in his final position at NASA where he worked for 31 years. He's been a cofounder in seven technology-based startups; and provided R&D, engineering, and innovation consulting to several hundred organizations. Matt has three patents and more than 50 publications including his online Cryogenic Fluid Management guide and Decarbonizing Mobility with Liquid Hydrogen SAE report. He has created and taught liquid hydrogen courses, webinars, and workshops to global audiences.

This newsletter shares global highlights of liquid hydrogen (LH2) systems news, developments, best practices, training, tools, technologies, and other LH2 related content.

LH2 Newsletter (Issue 2025.2) This newsletter shares global highlights of liquid hydrogen (LH2) systems news, developments, best practices, training, tools, technologies, and other LH2 related content.   Training & Tools 👍25% Course Discount🎓 Use promo code 20252 for a 25% discount ($100 off) on the Liquid Hydrogen Systems course. Limited to first 100 customers. LH2 COURSE   More LH2 training and tools...   LH2 Era™ Blog Storage of Liquid Hydrogen "Mobility applications, as well as the infrastructure systems used for fueling operations, require hydrogen storage..." Large-Scale Export of Liquid Hydrogen "Export terminals at the Port of Duqm are part of an integrated hydrogen ecosystem... (Image credit: Oman Observer)" Cryogenic Hydrogen Report from HII "The Hydrogen Innovation Initiative has released an outstanding resource that can be accessed at the above caption..." More from the LH2 Era™ blog...   News & Events LH2 Systems and Vacuum Jackets Presented at a Leybold hosted webinar on May 7th and available for on-demand viewing. Hydrogen for Energy Storage Presented at the Interagency Power Group MWG meeting on May 15th. Public slides posted on LinkedIn. More about Moran Innovation LLC...   LinkedIn Posts Toyota plans to roll out hydrogen trucks for California... Liquid Hydrogen Storage Set for the High Seas... South Korea Funds Project to Build Largest LH2 Carrier... World's first liquid hydrogen corridor... ZeroAvia reveals new liquid hydrogen testbed role... Liquid Hydrogen Course: Storage (Lecture 5) Hydrogen for Energy Storage More Global LH2 Systems group posts...   The current and previous newsletter issues are available online at the LH2 Era™ blog. They are also posted to the LinkedIn Global Liquid Hydrogen (LH2) Systems group and emailed to interested individuals. If you would like to receive the email version, send an email from the account you wish to receive it with "Subscribe" in the subject line to: info@moraninnovation.com

Cryogenic Hydrogen Report from HII

Download full report

The Hydrogen Innovation Initiative has released an outstanding resource that can be accessed at the above caption link. Kudos to the individuals who created this well-done primer! Some quick notes on a few of the topics based on my experiences [1]:

3.1 Hazards. The high diffusivity of H2 combined with 20 m/s rise rate in air at ambient temperature makes leaks much less hazardous than many fuels in some regards. My three mantras for all H2 systems are: prevent leaks, provide ventilation, and eliminate ignition sources. It's worth noting that the H2 lower flammability range in air is not much different than methane (natural gas); and it's detonation lower limit range is more than 3 times greater than methane. LH2 pools should only occur in catastrophic accidents and do not last long in practice. Resulting cold vapor clouds are transient but a serious hazard until they warm and rise. For ambient temperature H2, there are no flammable clouds only flammable leak source jets. 

3.2 Ignition consequences. Infrared (IR) detectors and cameras should be used to detect and check for any ignited H2 leaks or flare stack operations (although, they are generally visible at night or in dark locations). The low thermal radiance compared to other fuel fires is due to the lack of soot particles and allows first responders to get closer to the flame if needed.

3.3 Pressure system hazards. Phase change from liquid to vapor at 1 bar results in a 53-fold increase in specific volume which can quickly cause overpressure in an improperly designed or operated LH2 system. The 1:848 expansion ratio is a bit misleading since it assumes the GH2 warms to ambient which would take quite a while to occur in a properly insulated vessel or pipeline. BLEVE is an interesting topic. I've run many thousands of LH2 tests over the years with significant flashing occurring in a receiving tank or vent line exit and never saw any evidence of it. The conditions where it may happen seem to be uncertain at this time.

3.4 Cryogenic hazards. In a properly designed and operated LH2 system, cold burns, hypothermia, and asphyxiation are extremely unlikely. But they must be guarded against like any other hazard. Proper piping and component design and insulation; no enclosed spaces where hydrogen can accumulate; and personal protective equipment (PPE) for any personnel who may be exposed to cryogenic surface during maintenance, etc. Also worth noting: although H2 is an asphyxiant if enough oxygen is displaced, it is not toxic. In fact, breathing gas mixtures for deep diving have used H2. RPT seems similar to BLEVE - a possible scenario but not proven for any specific conditions yet.

4.2 Component level design. Common insulation systems for LH2 include a vacuum jacket with insulation in the vacuum such as MLI, glass bubbles, perlite, or various aerogel formulations. Foam is only appropriate for launch vehicles or potentially other "load-and-go" high consumption applications that can tolerate the poor thermal performance (none currently outside of the space industry that I'm aware of). There is some recent R&D for non-vacuum LH2 insulation that has not been publicly tested or quantified yet. Until it is, vacuum jackets for any LH2 system vessel, transfer piping, and components in contact with the LH2 are a must unless you build rockets (or something with similar requirements). A common MLI construction is layers of double aluminized mylar with dacron netting between them. Approximately 30 layers with a thickness of 2.5 cm can get below 1 W/m^2 heat flux between 300 K and 20 K surfaces in a hard vacuum. Nothing provides near zero conductivity, unfortunately, but MLI in a hard vacuum is the best performing option.

5 Material considerations. While some materials become more brittle at LH2 temperatures (e.g., carbon steel, most plastics, most body-centered cubic metals), others retain their ductility (e.g., aluminum alloys, austenitic stainless with > 7% nickel, and most face-centered cubic metals). However, yield and ultimate strength actually increase generally for most solids; while elastic modulus and fatigue strength varies. Also worth noting is that many material and thermal properties of solids change in a highly nonlinear fashion as a function of temperature in the cryogenic range. This results in the need to integrate properties such as thermal conductivity and specific heat over the temperature range of interest when performing design calculations or modeling. A good deal of historical cryogenic materials testing was done and compiled by NASA, Purdue, NBS/NIST and other sources in addition to the ones mentioned. Coupon sample testing of any new materials, alloys, or processes is critical (especially any additively manufactured structures).

References

[1] Liquid Hydrogen Systems Course, 2025.

Author Bio

Matt Moran is the Managing Member at Moran Innovation LLC, and previous Managing Partner at Isotherm Energy. He's been developing power and propulsion systems for more than 40 years; and first-of-a-kind gas, slush, and liquid hydrogen systems since the mid-1980s. Matt was also the Sector Manager for Energy & Materials in his final position at NASA where he worked for 31 years. He's been a cofounder in seven technology-based startups; and provided R&D, engineering, and innovation consulting to several hundred organizations. Matt has three patents and more than 50 publications including his online Cryogenic Fluid Management guide and Decarbonizing Mobility with Liquid Hydrogen SAE report. He has created and taught liquid hydrogen courses, webinars, and workshops to global audiences.

Storage of Liquid Hydrogen

LH2 Self Pressurization Test Data, Modeling, and Thermodynamic Behavior [1]

Mobility applications, as well as the infrastructure systems used for fueling operations, require hydrogen storage. Choosing the appropriate hydrogen storage option is driven by system requirements. This process uses a holistic approach that also addresses the local regulatory framework and policy priorities. 

Volumetric storage density and mass fraction are key parameters for mass- and volume-limited mobile applications. Conversely, mass fraction is generally not a driver for stationary fueling, ground support equipment, and long-term storage.

Stationary LH2 storage dewars of various sizes along with the applicable codes and standards are well established. Mobile LH2 storage is less mature and will likely be subject to different certification processes depending on the type of vessel, materials, design details, and application.

Distribution options for LH2 range from long-distance transport to onsite production and liquefaction. Capital and operational costs of the delivery infrastructure drive profitability and subsequent investments. Standardization and interoperability must evolve to bring down costs and accelerate growth.

Thermal management of LH2 and mitigation of boil-off throughout the delivery pathways is critical to minimizing hydrogen loss and associated costs. Identifying the appropriate options to mitigate boil-off losses requires systems engineering to identify the best trades for a particular use case [2].

References

[1] Image source: Liquid Hydrogen Systems Course, 2025.

[2] Text source: Decarbonizing Mobility with Liquid Hydrogen, SAE Research Report, 2024.

Author Bio

Matt Moran is the Managing Member at Moran Innovation LLC, and previous Managing Partner at Isotherm Energy. He's been developing power and propulsion systems for more than 40 years; and first-of-a-kind gas, slush, and liquid hydrogen systems since the mid-1980s. Matt was also the Sector Manager for Energy & Materials in his final position at NASA where he worked for 31 years. He's been a cofounder in seven technology-based startups; and provided R&D, engineering, and innovation consulting to several hundred organizations. Matt has three patents and more than 50 publications including his online Cryogenic Fluid Management guide and Decarbonizing Mobility with Liquid Hydrogen SAE report. He has created and taught liquid hydrogen courses, webinars, and workshops to global audiences.

Large-Scale Export/Import of Liquid Hydrogen

Export terminals at the Port of Duqm are part of an integrated hydrogen ecosystem envisioned for development in Oman by Hydrom [1]. (Credit: Oman Observer)

I was recently asked to provide feedback on the Oman-Europe liquid hydrogen corridor initiative by the global director of hydrogen at a leading multinational manufacturer of LH2 systems. Thought this might be of interest to others in the the hydrogen community. Below are the questions posed (in bold italic) along with my responses.

Moran Innovation Liquid Hydrogen (LH2) Newsletter [Issue 2025.1]

See document summary and SAE aerospace decarbonization webinar here [1]

Welcome to the Moran Innovation Liquid Hydrogen (LH2) newsletter! The goal is to help anyone involved or interested in liquid hydrogen systems to stay informed of the latest news, developments, best practices, training, events, and other relevant LH2 content.

This newsletter will also be posted to the LinkedIn Global Liquid Hydrogen (LH2) Systems group and emailed to interested individuals. If you would like to receive the email version, please send an email to info@moraninnovation.com with "LH2 newsletter" in the subject line from the account you wish to receive it.

Note that links to sources are sprinkled throughout the newsletter and appear as blue underlined text when you hover your mouse over them (or tap them on phones or tablets). Light yellow highlights indicate recommended sites to visit for more in-depth content.

Popular Content from the LH2 Era™ Blog

"In early 2025, I conducted a survey of global liquid hydrogen users that resulted in 75 responses. A summary of the results can be viewed by clicking on the above caption. Many thanks to the fantastic team at Mission Hydrogen for getting the word out about this survey!..." see full post

"This pie chart [2]... may be one of the last bits of promising US energy news we'll get for the next few years. Many colleagues have asked my opinion about the prospects for hydrogen in the US under the new administration. Here's a breakdown of what we already know, and my guess about what's to come..." see full post

"The most common commercially available storage options along with some of their key characteristics are shown above [3]. Each of these methods has advantages and disadvantages that are critical considerations for selecting the best storage method for a given system and use case..." see full post

Visit the LH2 Era™ blog for more LH2 content

LH2 Systems Training

• Online on-demand course can be completed in a day
• Concise treatment of liquid hydrogen (LH2) systems for quickly getting up to speed for those new to the topic
• Advanced tools, knowledge, and hard to find data for more experienced participants
• Applicable and adaptable to any mobile or stationary LH2 system with examples from infrastructure and aerospace
• Video clips from live course lectures edited to provide the most relevant information to learn at your own pace
• Downloadable PDF of over 350 slides with supplemental data and hyperlinks to more details
• Instructor has 40 years of engineering experience with LH2 technologies and systems development for NASA, military, industrial, and commercial customers

Visit the LH2 Era™ Library for this and other on-demand online training materials

Upcoming Events

• Apr 25, 2025, "Large Scale Projects: The Road to Full-Scale Hydrogen Deployment" H2 View webinar.
• May 7, 2025: "Liquid Hydrogen Systems and the Role of Vacuum Jackets" Leybold webinar, 1-2 pm ET.
• May 15, 2025: "Hydrogen for Energy Storage", Interagency Advanced Power Group (IAPG) Mechanical Working Group (MWG) meeting, Power Conversion Panel presentation.
• January 16 - December 18, 2025: Liquid Hydrogen Systems course. 24-hour free online viewing of one of the course lectures on the third Thursday of each month starting at 10 am ET.

Visit the Moran Innovation's Training page for more resources and learning opportunities

Moran Innovation News and Updates

• Artemis Human Landing Systems: Completed subcontract providing cryogenic fluid management subject matter expertise to the NASA and Blue Origin teams developing the Blue Moon LH2/LOx lunar lander. (posted Mar 31, 2025)
  
• Ohio Fuel Cell and Hydrogen Consortium (OFCHC): "Hydrogen 101" virtual presentation for OFCHC members and other registrants. (posted Mar 25, 2025)
• Center for Transportation and the Environment (CTE): Completed the final Q&A session with the CTE engineering team after they used the online, on-demand liquid hydrogen systems course. (posted Mar 3, 2025)
• Engineering in Construction & Manufacturing Conference and Trade Show (EC&M): "Hydrogen-Based Energy Systems" panel and presentation on "Hydrogen Microgrids for Resiliency and Fuel Offtake". (posted Feb 27, 2025)
• Mission Hydrogen: Presented on liquid hydrogen fluid management and had a lively Q&A for more than 90 minutes on this very popular global webinar series (1341 live participants). (posted Feb 26, 2025)
• EU HASTA Project: Gave an invited presentation on liquid hydrogen sloshing to the European Union Hydrogen Aircraft Sloshing Tank Advancement (HASTA) Project. (posted January 23, 2025)

Visit Moran Innovation's Home page for more information on LH2 systems, technologies, services, training, consulting, customers, partners, blog index, IP, projects, and more.

Top Ranked LH2 News Posts

"Kawasaki Heavy Industries has ordered a hydrogen pump unit from Nikkiso which will be integrated into a hydrogen-fueled ship using a low-speed, two-stroke hydrogen dual-fuel engine. The technology will complement Kawasaki’s 2.4MW dual-fuel generator engine, which it secured a ClassNK approval in principle (AiP) for in 2022...." see full post

"Annual capacity of up to 8,000 metric tons of hydrogen... Direct integration of the technology into a chemical production environment is a world first... Designed to produce zero-carbon hydrogen, the electrolyzer has a connected load of 54 megawatts and the capacity to supply the main plant with up to one metric ton of this substantial chemical feedstock every hour..." see full post

“Port Houston and Linde have been awarded nearly $25m to build and operate a heavy-duty hydrogen refuelling station in the Texan port. The Department of Transport and the Federal Highway Administration granted the funding to the Port of Houston Authority, as part of a collaboration with Linde and other players..." see full post

References

[1] Decarbonizing Mobility with Liquid Hydrogen, SAE Research Report, 2024.

[2] John Timmer, Ars Technica, Jan 27, 2025.

[3] Liquid Hydrogen Systems Course, 2025.

Author Bio

Matt Moran is the Managing Member at Moran Innovation LLC, and previous Managing Partner at Isotherm Energy. He's been developing power and propulsion systems for more than 40 years; and first-of-a-kind gas, slush, and liquid hydrogen systems since the mid-1980s. Matt was also the Sector Manager for Energy & Materials in his final position at NASA where he worked for 31 years. He's been a cofounder in seven technology-based startups; and provided R&D, engineering, and innovation consulting to several hundred organizations. Matt has three patents and more than 50 publications including his online Cryogenic Fluid Management guide and Decarbonizing Mobility with Liquid Hydrogen SAE report. He has created and taught liquid hydrogen courses, webinars, and workshops to global audiences.